Bahasa Inggris 2

CHAPTER 1

/SOME, ANY, MUCH, MANY, A LOT OF, AND A FEW

1.       SOME & ANY

      Some are used in the positive. Some can be used for objects countable and uncountable nouns. Some are not used in negative sentences or questions.

Example:  

-          I have some friends.

-          We bought some coffee.

-          There are some grapes on the table.

-          My brothers buy some chairs.

Keep in mind that, if we use some for objects that can be calculated (countable nouns), the object must be plural / plural.

-          Correct: Tini has some books

-          Wrong: Tini has some book.

-          Correct: Nick and I have some pens.

-          Wrong: Nick and I some pen.

If after some words we put a noun that can not be calculated / uncountable noun, then it should not be a noun plus "s / es"

-          True: There is some salt in the kitchen.

-          Wrong:There is some salts in the kitchen.

-          Correct: I need some water.

-          Wrong: I need some waters

Note:

-          Remember, some can not be used in the form of a negative sentence, or the interrogative sentence.

-          However, to offer something (offer) and demand (request), we need to put some words in a sentence asked.

Example:

-          Would you like some oranges? (Offer)

-          Can I have some tea? (Request)

-          Would you like some milk?

-          Can I borrow some money?

Any used only in negative sentences and interrogative sentence / interrogative. In the negative or interrogative sentence are not allowed to wear some, as with any word should never be placed in the positive. Once any, we can put a countable or uncountable nouns. When a noun is countable noun / countable noun and more than one, then that too must be a noun in the plural / plural.

Example:

-          Correct: I do not have any Math books.

-          Wrong: I do not have any Math book.

-          Correct: Do they need any knives?

-          Wrong: Do they need any knife?

-          There is not any bread left

-          Do you have any money?

-          Is there any sugar?

2.       MUCH & MANY

The words much and many mean a lot of.

-          If a noun is in singular, we use much

Example: much money

-          If a noun is in plural, we use many

Example: many friends

Use of much / many

      In everyday English, we normally use much / many only in questions and negative clauses.

Example:    How much money have you got?

Carla does not have many friends.

In positive clauses with so, as or too, we also use much / many.

Example:

-          Carla has so many friends.

-          She has as many friends as Sue.

-          Kevin has too much money.

In all other positive clauses, however, we prefer expressions like a lot of / lots of.

Example:

-          Carla has a lot of / lots of friends.

-          Kevin has a lot of / lots of money.

In formal texts, however, much / many are also common in positive clauses. This you will notice for example when you read English news.

Countable / Uncountable Nouns

In connection with much / many people often speak of countable nouns and uncountable nouns.

Countable nouns have a singular and a plural form. In plural, these nouns can be used with a number (that's why they are called 'countable nouns'). Countable nouns take many.

Example:

·         100 friends – many friends

Uncountable nouns can only be used in singular. These nouns cannot be used with a number (that's why they are called 'uncountable nouns'). Uncountable nouns take much.

Example:

·         100 money – much money

Note: Of course you can count money – but then you would name the currency and say that you have got 5 euro (but not “5 money“).

3.       A LOT OF & A FEW

A lot of and lots of are used to express that there is a large quantity of something.

We use a lot of in positive sentences, negative sentences and questions. This expression can be used with countable or uncountable nouns.

·         There are a lot of dogs in the street. (Countable noun)

·         I have a lot of time to answer your questions. (Uncountable noun)

·         I saw a lot of people waiting in the queue. (Countable)

·         We did have a lot of fun, didn't we? (Uncountable)

We use lots of in positive and negative sentences, however it is more informal. It can be used with countable or uncountable nouns, and occasionally in questions.

·         We have lots of time to catch the plane, lets relax. (Uncountable noun)

·         There are lots of people in the queue today. (Countable)

·         Oh my, you have spent lots of money on clothes! (Uncountable)

·         I have lots of questions. (Countable)

She has a lot of money = She has lots of money

We use a few and a little to suggest a small quantity or not much of something.

A few is used with countable nouns (= some; not many)

A little is used with uncountable nouns (= some; not much)

·         There are only a few days left until Christmas. (Countable noun)

·         I have a few crazy friends. (Countable noun)

·         I would like a little milk for my coffee. (Uncountable noun)

·         There is little hope of finding your wallet. (Uncountable noun)

While Few and Little usually have negative meanings, especially when used with very.

·         He is sad because he has few friends. (Countable noun)

·         There are few honest politicians. (Countable noun)

·         There is little hope of finding your wallet. (Uncountable noun)

·         They have very little knowledge about politics. (Uncountable noun)

CHAPTER 2

ARTICLES (A, AN, THE)

1.       The Indefinite Article – A / AN

We use A/AN with:

a.       Singular nouns and the first time we refer to a person, animal or thing.

-          a child

-          an elephant

-          a television

b.       We don't use A/AN with possessive pronouns, demonstratives or cardinal numbers.

-          My shirt is dirty.

-          This car is expensive.

-          One person is in the reception.

c.       We use ONE (or more) instead of A/AN when the number is important.

-          There is only one exit from the airport.

-          What is the difference between A and AN?

A is used when the next word begins with a consonant sound (b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k etc).

-          a book

-          a table

-          a clock

-          a university (because the beginning of university sounds like YOU-niversity)

AN is used when the next word begins with a vowel sound (a, e, i, o, u).

-          an apple

-          an elephant

-          an umbrella

-          an hour (because the H is silent)

2.       The Definite Article – THE

We use THE with:

a.       A singular or plural noun when it is clear/obvious which person or thing we are talking about.

-          There is a lamp in my bedroom. (we mention the lamp for the first time)

-          The lamp is next to the desk.

b.       Anything which we identify immediately.

-          We watched the new Brad Pitt movie last night.

c.       Musical instruments (the violin, the guitar, the drums, the flute, the piccolo).

-          She plays the piano.

d.       Something that is unique or there is only one.

-          the sun

-          the moon

-          the internet.

e.       Names of rivers, seas, oceans, mountain ranges and deserts (always in capitals).

-          The Mississippi River

-          The Black Sea

-          The Andes

-          The Sahara Desert

f.        Directions (cardinal points).

-          the west

-          the south-east

-          the north-west.

3.       No Article

We use no article with:

a.       When we refer to general ideas, plurals or uncountable nouns we do not use THE.

-          Religion is an important issue. (NOT The religion is an important issue)

-          Mexican food is spicy. (NOT The Mexican food is spicy).

b.       Names of people, books and plays (unless it is part of the title).

-          I have read Romeo and Juliet.

c.       Towns, cities, states and countries.

-          Cape Town

-          Montana

-          Vietnam

(Exceptions – The USA, The UK, The Netherlands, The Czech Republic, The Philippines).

d.       Lakes, single islands, continents or mountains.

-          Lake Victoria

-          Jamaica

-          Asia

-          Mt Fuji

e.       Planets

-          Mars

-          Jupiter

-          Saturn

-          Venus

f.        Sports or games

-          soccer

-          tennis

-          skiing

-          monopoly

g.       Meals

-          breakfast

-          lunch

-          dinner

-          supper

CHAPTER 3

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE

Use of Passive

Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known, however, who or what is performing the action.

Example: My bike was stolen.

In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen. I do not know, however, who did it.

Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following example shows:

Example: A mistake was made.

In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I do not blame anyone (e.g. You have made a mistake.).

Form of Passive

Subject  +  finite form of to be  +  Past Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs)

Example: A letter was written.

When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:

-          the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence

-          the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)

-          the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped)

Tense		Subject	Verb	Object
Simple Present	Active:	Rita	Writes	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	is written	by Rita.
Simple Past	Active:	Rita	Wrote	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	was written	by Rita.
Present Perfect	Active:	Rita	has written	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	has been written	by Rita.
Future	Active:	Rita	will write	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	will be written	by Rita.
Present Progressive	Active:	Rita	is writing	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	is being written	by Rita.
Past Progressive	Active:	Rita	was writing	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	was being written	by Rita.
Past Perfect	Active:	Rita	had written	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	had been written	by Rita.
Conditional	Active:	Rita	would write	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	would be written	by Rita.

Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two objects becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject depends on what you want to put the focus on.

	Subject	Verb	Object 1	Object 2
Active:	Rita	wrote	a letter	to me.
Passive:	A letter	was written	to me	by Rita.
Passive:	I	was written	a letter	by Rita.

As you can see in the examples, adding by Rita does not sound very elegant. That’s why it is usually dropped.

Personal and Impersonal Passive

Personal Passive simply means that the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence. So every verb that needs an object (transitive verb) can form a personal passive.

Example: They build houses. – Houses are built.

Verbs without an object (intransitive verb) normally cannot form a personal passive sentence (as there is no object that can become the subject of the passive sentence). If you want to use an intransitive verb in passive voice, you need an impersonal construction – therefore this passive is called Impersonal Passive.

Example: he says – it is said

Impersonal Passive is not as common in English as in some other languages (e.g. German, Latin). In English, Impersonal Passive is only possible with verbs of perception (e. g. say, think, know).

Example: They say that women live longer than men. – It is said that women live longer than men.

Although Impersonal Passive is possible here, Personal Passive is more common.

Example: They say that women live longer than men. – Women are said to live longer than men.

The subject of the subordinate clause (women) goes to the beginning of the sentence; the verb of perception is put into passive voice. The rest of the sentence is added using an infinitive construction with 'to' (certain auxiliary verbs and that are dropped).

Sometimes the term Personal Passive is used in English lessons if the indirect object of an active sentence is to become the subject of the passive sentence.

CHAPTER 4

INDEFINITE PRONOUN

Indefinite pronouns are those referring to one or more unspecified objects, beings, or places. They are called “indefinite” simply because they do not indicate the exact object, being, or place to which they refer.

Indefinite pronouns include partitives such as any, anybody, anyone, either, neither, nobody, no, someone, and some; they also include universals such as every, all, both, and each; finally, they include quantifiers including any, some, several, enough, many, and much. Many indefinite pronouns can also function as determiners.

There are just two important rules for using indefinite pronouns correctly. Remember these and you will find that writing comes easier for you.

·         Indefinite pronouns are never plural. They are always singular.

·         Because indefinite pronouns are singular, the pronouns or verbs used to refer to them should also be singular.

Examples of Indefinite Pronouns :

·         Many are called, but few are chosen.

·         Somebody ate my sandwich!

·         Everyone says she is beautiful inside and out.

·         No one wants to hear about my health problems.

·         Either choice has its advantages.

CHAPTER 5

CAUSATIVE VERB

           

We use a causative verb when we want to talk about something that someone else did for us or for another person. It means that the subject caused the action to happen, but didn't do it themselves. Maybe they paid, or asked, or persuaded the other person to do it. For example, we can say:

·         I cleaned my house. (This means I cleaned it myself).

If I paid someone to clean it, of course I can say:

·         A cleaner cleaned my house.

But, another way is to use a causative construction. So I can also say:

·         I had my house cleaned.

In a sense, using a causative verb is similar to using a passive. The important thing is that the house is now clean. We don't focus on who did the cleaning.

Have + object + past participle (have something done)

We usually use 'have something done' when we are talking about paying someone to do something for us. It's often used for services. The form is 'subject + have + object + past participle'.

·         I had my car washed.

·         John will have his house painted.

Get + object + past participle (get something done)

We can also use 'subject + get + object + past participle'. This has the same meaning as 'have', but is less formal.

·         The students get their essays checked.

·         I'll get my hair cut next week.

·         He got his washing machine fixed.

Have someone do something (have + person + infinitive)

We can also use the construction 'subject + have + person + infinitive'. This has a very similar meaning to 'have something done', which we've already talked about, but this time we say who did the thing - we talk about the person who we asked to do the thing for us.

·         I had the electrician look at my broken light.

·         The doctor will have the nurse call the patients.

·         The teacher had the students write the answers on the whiteboard.

Get someone to do something (get + person + to + infinitive)

Finally, we can also use the construction 'get + someone + to + infinitive'. Again, this means that you cause the other person to do the action, maybe by paying them to do it, or by asking them to do it, or by persuading them to do it.

·         She gets her son to do his homework by promising him ice cream when he's finished.

·         I got the cleaner to clean under the cupboards.

Sometimes, this construction has the feeling that we needed to convince someone to do something, while the other constructions on this page are neutral.

CHAPTER 6

DETERMINER

Determiners are words which come at the beginning of the noun phrase. They tell us whether the noun phrase is specific or general. Determiners are either specific or general

A.     Specific determiners:

The specific determiners are:

·         the definite article: the

·         possessives: my, your, his, her, its; our, their, whose

·         demonstratives: this, that, these, those

·         interrogatives: which

We use a specific determiner when we believe the listener/reader knows exactly what we are referring to:

-          Can you pass me the salt please?

-          Look at those lovely flowers.

-          Thank you very much for your letter.

-          Whose coat is this?

B.      General determiners:

The general determiners are:

·         a; an; any; another; other; what

When we are talking about things in general and the listener/reader does not know exactly what we are referring to, we can use an uncount noun or a plural noun with no determiner:

-          Milk is very good for you. (= uncount noun)

-          Health and education are very important. (= 2 uncount nouns)

-          Girls normally do better in school than boys. (= plural nouns with no determiner)

… or you can use a singular noun with the indefinite article a or an:

-          A woman was lifted to safety by a helicopter.

-          A man climbing nearby saw the accident.

We use the general determiner any with a singular noun or an uncount noun when we are talking about all of those people or things:

-          It’s very easy. Any child can do it. (= All children can do it)

-          With a full licence you are allowed to drive any car.

-          I like beef, lamb, pork - any meat.

We use the general determiner another to talk about an additional person or thing:

-          Would you like another glass of wine?

The plural form of another is other:

-          I spoke to John, Helen and a few other friends.

           

CHAPTER 7

QUESTION TAG

Question tags are the short questions that we put on the end of sentences – particularly in spoken English. There are lots of different question tags but the rules are not difficult to learn.

Positive/negative

If the main part of the sentence is positive, the question tag is negative ….

·         He’s a doctor, isn’t he?

·         You work in a bank, don’t you?

... and if the main part of the sentence is negative, the question tag is positive.

·         You haven’t met him, have you?

·         She isn’t coming, is she?

With auxiliary verbs

The question tag uses the same verb as the main part of the sentence. If this is an auxiliary verb (‘have’, ‘be’) then the question tag is made with the auxiliary verb.

·         They’ve gone away for a few days, haven’t they?

·         They weren’t here, were they?

·         He had met him before, hadn’t he?

·         This isn’t working, is it?

Without auxiliary verbs

If the main part of the sentence doesn’t have an auxiliary verb, the question tag uses an appropriate form of ‘do’.

·         I said that, didn’t I?

·         You don’t recognise me, do you?

·         She eats meat, doesn’t she?

With modal verbs

If there is a modal verb in the main part of the sentence the question tag uses the same modal verb.

·         They couldn’t hear me, could they?

·         You won’t tell anyone, will you?

With ‘I am’

Be careful with question tags with sentences that start ‘I am’. The question tag for ‘I am’ is ‘aren’t I?’

·         I’m the fastest, aren’t I?

CHAPTER 8

THIRD CONDITIONAL

We make the third conditional by using the past perfect after 'if' and then 'would have' and the past participle in the second part of the sentence:

if + past perfect, ...would + have + past participle

It talks about the past. It's used to describe a situation that didn't happen, and to imagine the result of this situation.

·         If she had studied, she would have passed the exam (but, really we know she didn't study and so she didn't pass)

·         If I hadn't eaten so much, I wouldn't have felt sick (but I did eat a lot, and so I did feel sick).

·         If we had taken a taxi, we wouldn't have missed the plane

·         She wouldn't have been tired if she had gone to bed earlier

·         She would have become a teacher if she had gone to university

·         He would have been on time for the interview if he had left the house at nine

SUCH and SO

Such is a determiner; so is an adverb. They often have the same meaning of ‘very’ or ‘to this degree’:

            Those are such good chocolates.

            Those chocolates are so good.

We use such + noun phrase and so + adjective or adverb phrase:

She is such a great cook.

Not: She is so great cook.

That was so unpleasant. (so + adjective)

Not: That was such unpleasant.

Why do you drive so fast? (so + adverb)

Not: Why do you drive such fast?

Compare:

so + adjective	such + noun phrase
You’re so kind.	He’s such a kind person
It was so hot we couldn’t work.	November was such a cold month.

So but not such can also be used in front of much, many, little, few to add emphasis:

So much food was wasted every day.

Not: Such much food was wasted …

In those days there were so few doctors in our area.

Not: … there were such few doctors …

Typical errors

·         We use such, not so, before a noun, even if there is an adjective before the noun:

They’re such snobs! They won’t speak to anyone else in the village.

Not: They’re so snobs …

Those are such cool shoes. Where did you get them?

Not: Those are so cool shoes.

·         We use such, not so, before a noun phrase with the indefinite article a/an:

This is such a wonderful kitchen!

Not: This is a so wonderful kitchen!

·         We use so, not such, before adjectives:

Thank you. You’re so kind.

Not: You’re such kind.

·         We use so, not such, before adverbs:

She always dresses so elegantly.

Not: She always dresses such elegantly.

CHAPTER 9

DIRECT & INDIRECT

1.       PRESENT TENSES

·         Present simple tense into Past simple.

Present Simple	Past Simple
He said, “I write a letter”	He said that he wrote a letter.
She said, “he goes to school daily”	He said that she went to school daily.
They said, “we love our country”	They said that they loved their country
He said, “he does not like computer”	He said that he did not like computer.

·         Present Continuous tense into Past continuous

Present Continous	Past Continous
He said, “he is listening to the music”	He said that he was listening to the music.
She said, “I am washing my clothes”	She said that she was washing her clothes.
They said, “we are enjoying the weather”	They said that they were not enjoying the weather.
She said, “I am not laughing”	She said that she was not laughing.

·         Present Perfect tense into Pas perfect

Present Perfect	Pas Perfect
She said, “he has finished his work”	She said that he had finished his work.
He said, “I have started a job”	He said that he had started a job.
I said, “she have eaten the meal”	I said that she had eaten the meal.
They said, “we have not gone to New York.	They said that they had not gone to New York.

·         Present Perfect Continuous into Past perfect continuous

Present Perfect Continuous	Past perfect continuous
He said, “I have been studying since 3 O’clock”	He said that he had been studying since 3 O’clock.
She said, “It has been raining for three days.”	She said that it been raining for three days.
I said, “She has been working in this office since 2007”	I said that she had been working in this office since 2007.

2.       PAST TENSES

·         Past simple into Past Perfect

Past simple	Past Perfect
He said to me, “you answered correctly”	He said to me that I had answered correctly.
John said, “they went to cinema”	John said that they had gone to cinema.
He said, “I made a table”	He said that he had made a table.
She said, “I didn’t buy a car”	She said that she had not bought a car.

·         Past Continuous into Past Perfect Continuous

Past Continuous	Past Perfect Continuous
They said, “we were enjoying the weather”	They said that they had been enjoying.
He said to me, “ I was waiting for you”	He said to me that he had been waiting for me.
I said, “It was raining”	I said that it had been raining.
She said, “I was not laughing”	She said that she not been laughing.

·         Past Perfect into Past Perfect

Past Perfect	Past Perfect
She said, “She had visited a doctor”	She said that she had visited a doctor.
He said, “I had started a business”	He said that he had started a business.
I said, “she had eaten the meal”	I said that she had eaten the meal.
They said, “we had not gone to New York.	They said they had not gone to New York.

3.       FUTURE TENSES

·         Future simple, will into would

Future simple, will into would
He said, “I will study the book”	He said that he would study the book.
She said, “I will buy a computer”	She said that she would buy a computer.
They said to me, “we will send you gifts”	They said to me that they would send you gifts.
I said, “I will not take the exam”	I said that I would not take the exam

·         Future Continuous, will be into would be

Future Continuous, will be into would be
I said to him, “ I will be waiting for him”	I said to him that I would be waiting for him.
She said,” I will be shifting to new home”	She said that she would be shifting to a new home.
He said, “I will be working hard”	He said that he would be working hard.
She said, “he will not be flying kite”	She said that he would not be flying kites.

·         Future Perfect, will have into would have

Future Perfect, will have into would have
He said, “I will have finished the work”	He said that he would have finished the work.
She said, “they will have passed the examination”	She said that they would have passed the examination
He said, “I will have gone”	He said that he would have gone.

4.       QUESTION TAG

·         Yes/no Question

To change questions (which can be answered in yes or no) into indirect speech, word “if” or “whether” is used before the question in indirect speech. Rules for change in tense of question sentences are same as for change in normal tenses in indirect speech but sentence will not start with the auxiliary verb of the tense. The word “that” is not used between reporting verb and reported speech as conjunction in indirect speech for question sentence. Question mark is not used in indirect speech.

Examples.

-          Direct speech: He said to me, “do you like music?”

Indirect Speech: He asked me if I liked music. (Not, did I like music)

-          Direct speech:  She said, “Will he participate in the quiz competition?”

Indirect Speech: She asked me if he would participate in quiz competition.

-          Direct speech: I said to him, “are you feeling well?”

Indirect Speech: I asked him if he was feeling well.

-          Direct speech: They said to me, “did u go to school?”

Indirect Speech: They asked me if I had gone to school.

-          Direct speech: He said to me, “Have you taken the breakfast?”   

Indirect Speech: He asked me if I had taken the breakfast

·         WH Question

To change such questions into indirect speech, the words “if” or “whether” is not used. The tense of the question is changed according to the rules for change in normal tenses in indirect speech but sentence will not start with the auxiliary verb of the tense. The word “that” is not used between reporting verb and reported speech as conjunction, in indirect speech for question sentence. Question mark is not used in indirect speech.

Examples.

-          Direct speech: He said to me, “how are you?”

Indirect speech: He asked me how I was. (Not, how was I)

-          Direct speech: Teacher said to him, “what is your name?”

Indirect speech: Teacher asked him what his name was.

-          Direct speech: She said to him, “why did you come late?”

Indirect speech: She asked him why he had come late.

-          Direct speech: He said, “when will they come?”

Indirect speech: He asked when they would come.

-          Direct speech: She asked his son, “why are you crying?”

00Indirect speech: She asked her son why he was crying.